Monday 18 November 2013

Keeping Rhyan At Bay

A mammary gland is an organ in female mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring. Mammals get their name from the word "mammary." In humans, the mammary glands are situated in the breasts. In ruminants such as cows, goats, and deer, the mammary glands are contained in the udders. The mammary glands of mammals other than primates, such as dogs and cats, are sometimes called dugs.


Humans[edit]

Main article: Breast

Histology[edit]

A mammary gland is a specific type of apocrine gland specialized for manufacture of colostrum when giving birth. Mammary glands can be identified as apocrine because they exhibit striking "decapitation" secretion. Many sources assert that mammary glands are modified sweat glands.[4][5][6] Some authors dispute that and argue instead that they are sebaceous glands.[4]

Structure[edit]

The basic components of a mature mammary gland are the alveoli (hollow cavities, a few millimeters large) lined with milk-secreting cuboidal cells and surrounded by myoepithelial cells. These alveoli join to form groups known as lobules. Each lobule has a lactiferous duct that drains into openings in the nipple. The myoepithelial cells contract under the stimulation of oxytocin, excreting the milk secreted by alveolar units into the lobule lumen toward the nipple. As the infant begins to suck, the oxytocin-mediated "let down reflex" ensues and the mother's milk is secreted – not sucked from the gland – into the baby's mouth.
All the milk-secreting tissue leading to a single lactiferous duct is called a "simple mammary gland"; in a "complex mammary gland" all the simple mammary glands serve one nipple. Humans normally have two complex mammary glands, one in each breast, and each complex mammary gland consists of 10–20 simple glands. The presence of more than two nipples is known as polythelia and the presence of more than two complex mammary glands as polymastia.
Maintaining the correct polarized morphology of the lactiferous duct tree requires another essential component – mammary epithelial cells extracellular matrix (ECM) which, together with adipocytes, fibroblast, inflammatory cells, and others, constitute mammary stroma. [7] Mammary epithelial ECM mainly contains myoepithelial basement membrane and the connective tissue. They not only help to support mammary basic structure, but also serve as a communicating bridge between mammary epithelia and their local and global environment throughout this organ's development.[8][9]

Development and hormonal control[edit]

Further information: Mammary gland development
Mammary glands develop during different growth cycles. They exist in both sexes during embryonic stage, forming only a rudimentary duct tree at birth. In this stage, mammary gland development depends on systemic (and maternal) hormones,[7] but is also under the (local) regulation of paracrine communication between neighboring epithelial and mesenchymal cells by parathyroid hormone-related protein(PTHrP).[10] This locally secreted factor gives rise to a series of outside-in and inside-out positive feedback between these two types of cells, so that mammary bud epithelial cells can proliferate and sprout down into the mesenchymal layer until they reach the fat pad to begin the first round of branching.[7] At the same time, the embryonic mesenchymal cells around the epithelial bud receive secreting factors activated by PTHrP, such as BMP4. These mesenchymal cells can transform into a dense, mammary-specific mesenchyme, which later develop into connective tissue with fibrous threads, forming blood vessels and the lymph system.[11] A basement membrane, mainly containing laminin and collagen, formed afterward by differentiated myoepithelial cells, keeps the polarity of this primary duct tree.
Lactiferous duct development occurs in females in response to circulating hormones. First development is frequently seen during pre- and postnatal stages, and later during puberty. Estrogen promotes branching differentiation,[12] whereas in males testosterone inhibits it. A mature duct tree reaching the limit of the fat pad of the mammary gland comes into being by bifurcation of duct terminal end buds (TEB), secondary branches sprouting from primary ducts[8][13] and proper duct lumen formation. These processes are tightly modulated by components of mammary epithelial ECM interacting with systemic hormones and local secreting factors. However, for each mechanism the epithelial cells' "niche" can be delicately unique with different membrane receptor profiles and basement membrane thickness from specific branching area to area, so as to regulate cell growth or differentiation sub-locally.[14] Important players include beta-1 integrin, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), laminin-1/5, collagen-IV, matrix metalloproteinase(MMPs), heparan sulfate proteoglycans, and others. Elevated circulating level of growth hormone and estrogen get to multipotent cap cells on TEB tips through a thin, leaky layer of basement membrane. These hormones promote specific gene expression. Hence cap cells can differentiate into myoepithelial and luminal (duct) epithelial cells, and the increased amount of activated MMPs can degrade surrounding ECM helping duct buds to reach further in the fat pads.[15][16] On the other hand, basement membrane along the mature mammary ducts is thicker, with strong adhesion to epithelial cells via binding to integrin and non-integrin receptors. When side branches develop, it is a much more “pushing-forward” working process including extending through myoepithelial cells, degrading basement membrane and then invading into a periductal layer of fibrous stromal tissue.[8] Degraded basement membrane fragments (laminin-5) roles to lead the way of mammary epithelial cells migration.[17] Whereas, laminin-1 interacts with non-integrin receptor dystroglycan negatively regulates this side branching process in case of cancer.[18] These complex "Yin-yang" balancing crosstalks between mammary ECM and epithelial cells "instruct" healthy mammary gland development until adult.
Secretory alveoli develop mainly in pregnancy, when rising levels of prolactin, estrogen, and progesterone cause further branching, together with an increase in adipose tissue and a richer blood flow. In gestation, serum progesterone remains at a stably high concentration so signaling through its receptor is continuously activated. As one of the transcribed genes, Wnts secreted from mammary epithelial cells act paracrinely to induce more neighboring cells' branching.[19][20] When the lactiferous duct tree is almost ready, "leaves" alveoli are differentiated from luminal epithelial cells and added at the end of each branch. In late pregnancy and for the first few days after giving birth, colostrum is secreted. Milk secretion (lactation) begins a few days later due to reduction in circulating progesterone and the presence of another important hormone prolactin, which mediates further alveologenesis, milk protein production, and regulates osmotic balance and tight junction function. Laminin and collagen in myoepithelial basement membrane interacting with beta-1 integrin on epithelial surface again, is essential in this process.[21][22] Their binding ensures correct placement of prolactin receptors on the basal lateral side of alveoli cells and directional secretion of milk into lactiferous ducts.[21][22] Suckling of the baby causes release of the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates contraction of the myoepithelial cells. In this combined control from ECM and systemic hormones, milk secretion can be reciprocally amplified so as to provide enough nutrition for the baby.
During weaning, decreased prolactin, missing mechanical stimulation (baby suckling), and changes in osmotic balance caused by milk stasis and leaking of tight junctions cause cessation of milk production. In some species there is complete or partial involution of alveolar structures after weaning, in humans there is only partial involution and the level of involution in humans appears to be highly individual. In some other species (such as cows), all alveoli and secretory duct structures collapse by programmed cell death (apoptosis) and autophagy for lack of growth promoting factors either from the ECM or circulating hormones.[23][24] At the same time, apoptosis of blood capillary endothelial cells speeds up the regression of lactation ductal beds. Shrinkage of the mammary duct tree and ECM remodeling by various proteinase is under the control of somatostatin and other growth inhibiting hormones and local factors.[25] This major structural change leads loose fat tissue to fill the empty space afterward. But a functional lactiferous duct tree can be formed again when a female is pregnant again.

Breast cancer[edit]

Tumorigenesis in mammary glands can be induced biochemically by abnormal expression level of circulating hormones or local ECM components,[26] or from a mechanical change in the tension of mammary stroma.[27] Under either of the two circumstances, mammary epithelial cells would grow out of control and eventually result in cancer. Almost all instances of breast cancer originate in the lobules or ducts of the mammary glands.

Other mammals[edit]

The constantly protruding breasts of the adult human female, unusually large relative to body size, are a unique evolutionary development whose purpose is not yet fully known (see breasts); other mammals tend to have less conspicuous mammary glands that protrude only while actually filling with milk. The number and positioning of complex and simple mammary glands varies widely in different mammals. The nipples and glands can occur anywhere along the two milk lines, two nearly parallel lines along the ventral aspect of the body. In general most mammals develop mammary glands in pairs along these lines, with a number approximating the number of young typically birthed at a time. The number of nipples varies from 2 (in most primates) to 18 (in pigs). The Virginia Opossum has 13, one of the few mammals with an odd number.[28][29] The following table lists the number and position of glands normally found in a range of mammals:
Species[30]Anterior
(thoracic)		Intermediate
(abdominal)		Posterior
(inguinal)		Total
Goat, sheep, horse
guinea pig		0022
Cattle0044
Cat2248
Dog[31]422 or 48 or 10
Mouse60410
Rat62412
Pig66618
proboscideans, primates2002
Male mammals typically have rudimentary mammary glands and nipples, with a few exceptions: male mice do not have nipples, [32] and male horses lack nipples and mammary glands.[citation needed] The male Dayak fruit bat has lactating mammary glands.[33] Male lactation occurs infrequently in some species, including humans.
Mammary glands are true protein factories, and several labs have constructed transgenic animals, mainly goats and cows, to produce proteins for pharmaceutical use.[34] Complex glycoproteins such as monoclonal antibodies or antithrombin cannot be produced by genetically engineered bacteria, and the production in live mammals is much cheaper than the use of mammalian cell cultures.

Evolution[edit]

The evolution of the mammary gland is difficult to explain; this is because mammary glands are typically required by mammals to feed their young. There are many theories on how mammary glands evolved, for example, it is believed that the mammary gland is a transformed sweat gland, more closely related to apocrine sweat glands.[35] Since mammary glands do not fossilize well, supporting such theories with fossil evidence is difficult. Many of the current theories are based on comparisons between lines of living mammals – monotremes, marsupials and eutherians. One theory proposes that mammary glands evolved from glands that were used to keep the eggs of early mammals moist[36][37] and free from infection[38][39] (monotremes still lay eggs). Other theories suggest that early secretions were used directly by hatched young,[40] or that the secretions were used by young to help them orient to their mothers.[41]
Lactation is assumed to have developed long before the evolution of the mammary gland and mammals; see evolution of lactation.

Gallery[edit]

See also[edit]




























PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT


of the


Yummy Investment Club


This AGREEMENT of PARTNERSHIP is made as of October 22, 2013, by and between the undersigned Partners.

I. Formation


The undersigned hereby form a General Partnership in, and in accordance with the laws of, the Most tasteful of All the kingdoms.

II. Name


The name of the Partnership shall be Tasteful Restraint .

III. Term


The Partnership shall begin on October 22, 2013 and shall continue until September 6, 2069 of the same year and thereafter from year to year unless earlier terminated as hereinafter provided.

IV. Purpose


No touchy.

V. Meetings


Periodic meetings shall be held regularly as determined by the Partnership.

VI. Capital Contributions


The Partners will each make minimum monthly investments of $69 at regular monthly meetings. Partners may also make optional additional contributions in any $69 increment(s). Regular monthly contributions, normally collected at meetings, are due prior to the scheduled meeting in the case of any planned absence, or by the end of the third day after the meeting from anyone who was unable to attend that monthly meeting due to an emergency or illness. No Partner's capital account shall exceed twenty percent (20%) of the capital accounts of all Partners.

VII. Valuation of the Partnership


Big Touching Yummy NO!

VIII. Capital Accounts


Pay lots of 69

IX. Management


Will is in big charge and Jack is the director of yummy

X. Sharing of Profits and Losses


The money will always be 69. All the other money is donated to the fixing of Jim

XI. Book of Account


Write of any inappropriate yummy touching

XII. Annual Accounting and Partnership Audit Committee


Every year, on the 6th day of the 9th month, there will be one big yummy touch.

XIII. Bank Account


The Bank Number is 6969696969696969

XIV. Broker Account


Jack is the breaker

§  All securities shall be purchased in the name of the Partnership.

§  All securities shall be kept in the Partnership safe deposit box or with the broker.

§  The Presiding Partner and the Assistant Presiding Partner shall be the custodians of all securities.

§  Any corporation or transfer agent called upon to transfer any securities to or from the name of the Partnership shall be entitled to rely on instructions or assignments signed by any Partner without inquiry as to the authority of the person(s) signing such instructions or assignments, and without inquiry as to the validity of any transfer to or from the name of the Partnership.

§  At the time of a transfer of securities, the corporation or transfer agent is entitled to assume (1) that the Partnership is still in existence and (2) that this Agreement is in full force and effect and has not been amended unless the corporation or transfer agent has received written notice to the contrary.

XV. No Compensation


If big yum happens no money will be given to fix it, we will still fix Jim

XVI. Additional Partners


Additional Partners may be admitted at any time, upon the unanimous consent of the Partners, so long as the number of Partners does not exceed 69.

XVII. Transfers to a Trust


We trust fixing Jim and so we always fix him

XVIII. Removal of a Partner


If naughty happens then big fixing happens

XIX. Termination of Partnership


Big bang is bad

XX. Voluntary Withdrawal (Partial or Full) of a Partner


You are trapped forever

XXI. Death or Incapacity of a Partner


If you die you give all money to Fix Jim foundation

XXII. Terms of Payment


Pay Jack

XXIII. Forbidden Acts


No Partner shall:

Rape

Partner (Printed Name)
Partner (Signature)
Date Signed
 RHYAN
 Rhyan
 6/9/13
 BEN
 Ben
 6/9/13
 JACK
 Jack
 6/9/13
 WILL
 Will
 6/9/13
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Posted by at 1 comment:

Hello

Hello again, i was feeling my car today when i encountered an ultimate predator stalking its prey. It was in competition with its rival predator but then they decided to share.


As you can see it will be tasteful
Posted by at No comments:

When I Like Food

Custard tart

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Custard tart
Pastry
Egg custard tart.jpg
Main ingredient(s):
Pastry crust, egg custard
Recipes at Wikibooks:
Cookbook Custard tart
Media at Wikimedia Commons:
Wikimedia Commons Custard tart
Custard tarts or flans pâtissier are a pastry consisting of an outer pastry crust filled with egg custard and baked.


History[edit]

The development of custard is so intimately connected with the custard tart or pie that the word itself comes from the old French croustade, meaning a kind of pie.[1] Some other names for varieties of custard tarts in the Middle Ages were doucettes and darioles. In 1399, the coronation banquet prepared for Henry IV included "doucettys".[2]
Medieval recipes generally included a shortcrust and puff pastry case filled with a mixture of cream, milk, or broth with eggs, sweeteners such as sugar or honey, and sometimes spices. Recipes existed as early as the fourteenth century that would still be recognisable as custard tarts today.[3] Tarts could also be prepared with almond milk during times of fasting such as Lent, though this was rather expensive and would have been popular only with the comparatively wealthy.[4] Often, savoury ingredients such as minced pork or beef marrow were also added (the combining of sweet and savoury ingredients was more common in medieval England), but unlike a modern quiche the custard filling itself was invariably sweet.[2]

Modern versions[edit]

A fruit-topped tart with custard filling.
Modern custard tarts are usually made from shortcrust pastry, eggs, sugar, milk or cream, and vanilla, sprinkled with nutmeg and baked. Unlike egg tarts, custard tarts are normally served at room temperature. They are available either as individual tarts, generally around 8 cm (3.1 in) across, or as larger tarts intended to be divided into several slices.

Britain and Commonwealth[edit]

Custard tarts have long been a favourite pastry in Britain and the Commonwealth. They are often called egg custard tarts or simply egg custards to distinguish the egg-based filling from the commonly served cornflour-based custards. They are sold in supermarkets and bakeries throughout the UK.[citation needed]
In Britain, the custard tart is regarded as a classic British dish, and as such a version by Marcus Wareing was selected on the BBC television program Great British Menu as the final course of a banquet to celebrate the Queen's 80th birthday.[5]
Variations on the classic recipe include the Manchester tart, where a layer of jam is spread on the pastry before the custard is added. Other versions may have some fresh fruit, such as rhubarb cooked into the filling.[6][dead link] Versions topped with elaborate arrangements of fruit show the influence of French pâtisserie.

Australia[edit]

The custard tart in Australia is legendary among cyclists as a reward for ascending a particularly steep mountain pass. It is simply called the Custard Tart.
No fruit, jam or decoration may be added. A light sprinkle of nutmeg[7] [8] is mandatory.

Hong Kong[edit]

Main article: egg tart
Custard tarts are popular in Hong Kong

France[edit]

A French custard tart.
Custard tarts (flans pâtissier) in France are generally larger and shallower than British ones. The filling may contain fruit, making it similar to a clafoutis.

Portugal and Lusosphere[edit]

Main article: Pastel de nata
Custard tarts are popular in the Lusosphere.

Romania[edit]

 

Buttermilk refers to a number of dairy drinks. Originally, buttermilk was the liquid left behind after churning butter out of cream. This type of buttermilk is known as traditional buttermilk.
The term buttermilk also refers to a range of fermented milk drinks, common in warm climates (e.g., the Middle East, Turkey, Pakistan, India, Srilanka and the Southern United States) where unrefrigerated fresh milk sours quickly,[1] as well as in colder climates, such as Scandinavia, Finland, Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Slovakia and Czech Republic. This fermented dairy product known as cultured buttermilk is produced from cow's milk and has a characteristically sour taste caused by lactic acid bacteria. This variant is made using one of two species of bacteria—either Streptococcus lactis or Lactobacillus bulgaricus, which creates more tartness.
The tartness of buttermilk is due to acid in the milk. The increased acidity is primarily due to lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria while fermenting lactose, the primary sugar in milk. As the bacteria produce lactic acid, the pH of the milk decreases and casein, the primary milk protein, precipitates, causing the curdling or clabbering of milk. This process makes buttermilk thicker than plain milk. While both traditional and cultured buttermilk contain lactic acid, traditional buttermilk tends to be less viscous, whereas cultured buttermilk is more viscous.[2]
Buttermilk can be drunk straight, and it can also be used in cooking. Soda bread is a bread in which buttermilk reacts with the rising agent, sodium bicarbonate, to produce carbon dioxide.


Traditional buttermilk[edit]

Originally, buttermilk was the liquid left over from churning butter from cultured or fermented cream. Traditionally, before cream could be skimmed from whole milk, the milk was left to sit for a period of time to allow the cream and milk to separate. During this time, naturally occurring lactic acid-producing bacteria in the milk fermented it. This facilitates the butter churning process, since fat from cream with a lower pH coalesces more readily than that of fresh cream. The acidic environment also helps prevent potentially harmful microorganisms from growing, increasing shelf-life.[3] However, in establishments that used cream separators, the cream was hardly acidic at all.
On the Indian subcontinent, the term "buttermilk" refers to the liquid left over after extracting butter from churned yogurt. Today, this is called traditional buttermilk. Traditional buttermilk is still common in many Indo-Pakistani households but rarely found in western countries.[2] In Southern India and most areas of the Punjab, Saurashtra (Gujarat), buttermilk with added water, sugar and/or salt, asafoetida, and curry leaves is a must-have in daily food while also given at stalls in festival times.

Health benefits[edit]

Buttermilk prepared in traditional way is considered beneficial to health as it contains probiotic microbes and is sometimes referred to as "Grandma's probiotic".[1] It is also soothing to stomach and skin.[1] The fat content of buttermilk is far lower than milk or curd as fat is removed during churning. The probiotic nature of buttermilk is beneficial to the gut and improves immunity when taken regularly.[4] One cup of whole milk contains 157 calories and 8.9 grams of fat whereas one cup of buttermilk contains 99 calories and 2.2 grams of fat.[5] Buttermilk contains vitamins, potassium, calcium, and traces of phosporous.[4] In countries like India, it is a favourite traditional drink during summer as it is soothing to the stomach and alleviates minor stomach upsets.[4] In India, flavoring ingredients like asafoetida, coriander leaves, ginger, currey leaves and sea salt are mixed with buttermilk to enhance its digestion-aiding properties.[4]

Cultured buttermilk[edit]

Commercially available cultured buttermilk is milk that has been pasteurized and homogenized (if 1% or 2% fat), and then inoculated with a culture of Streptococcus lactis plus Leuconostoc citrovorum to simulate the naturally occurring bacteria in the old-fashioned product. Some dairies add colored flecks of butter to cultured buttermilk to simulate residual flecks of butter that can be left over from the churning process of traditional buttermilk.[2]
Condensed buttermilk and dried buttermilk have increased in importance in the food industry.[6] Buttermilk solids are used in ice cream manufacture,[7] as well as being added to pancake mixes. Adding specific strains of bacteria to pasteurized milk allows more consistent production.
In the early 1900s, cultured buttermilk was labeled artificial buttermilk, to differentiate it from traditional buttermilk, which was known as natural or ordinary buttermilk.[8]

Acidified buttermilk[edit]

Acidified buttermilk is a related product made by adding a food-grade acid (such as lemon juice) to milk.[9] It can be produced by mixing 1 tablespoon of vinegar or lemon juice with 1 cup of milk and letting it sit until it curdles, about 10 minutes. Any level of fat content for the milk ingredient may be used, but whole milk is usually used for baking. In the process which is used to produce paneer such acidification is done in the presence of heat.

Powdered buttermilk[edit]

Like powdered milk, buttermilk is available in a dried powder form. This stores well at room temperature and is usually used in baked goods.

See also[edit]

 

 

 

 

See also: Alivenci
Posted by at No comments:
Subscribe to: Posts (Atom)